Arctic inter-state cooperation did not begin until the 1990s, as it was not possible during the Cold War for political reasons. The rise of Arctic co-operation was also motivated by an increase in environmental awareness.
The Arctic international cooperation was doing well through the first two decades of this century. The situation changed dramatically after Russia attacked Ukraine in February 2022. Since that, there has been no meaningful pan-Arctic cooperation. Most networks have ceased all activities with Russian partners or, as in the Arctic Council, only technical or working group contacts remain.

Arctic Council

The Arctic Council was created in 1996 on the initiative of Canada. It was preceded by Arctic Environmental Protection Cooperation, the so-called Rovaniemi Process, initiated in 1991 by Finland.

Map of the Arctic Council member states and observers.

Eight Arctic states are members of the Arctic Council. States whose territories pass through the Arctic Circle are recognized as members. Observers include many European and Asian countries and international organizations. The chairmanship of the Council rotates every two years between the Arctic countries. The Arctic countries are:

  • Iceland
  • Canada
  • Norway
  • Sweden
  • Finland
  • Denmark (Greenland)
  • Russia
  • United States

Six Arctic indigenous peoples’ organizations are permanent members of the Arctic Council. As a result, the position of indigenous peoples in the Arctic Council is stronger than in any other international organization. To become a permanent participant, you must either represent more than one nation or operate in more than one state:

This map shows you the organizations and gives facts about the nations.

The Arctic Council chair periods have traditionally ended by a ministerial meeting. Since Russia started a war of aggression in 2022, there have been no Arctic ministerial meetings. The Arctic Council operates on a non-political level and the working groups are resumed their activities.

Kingdom of Denmark acts as the Chair in the Arctic Council 2025-2027.

The activities of the Arctic Council are primarily concerned with environmental issues and sustainable development. For example, security issues are excluded from the Council’s work. The Arctic Council acts by consensus, i.e. it seeks unanimity in its policies. The Council does not take binding decisions on the Member States, although it has negotiated individually binding agreements on, for example, oil spills. At the heart of the Council’s work are six expert working groups working in their respective environmental sectors:

Many Forms of Cooperation

Most Arctic phenomena and developments are transnational in nature. As a result, the Arctic science community has built networks for a long time. The International Polar Year, which explores both polar regions, was first organized in the late 19th century. The event has been held four times altogether, most recently in 2007-2009. The next one is planned for years 2032-2033.

The International Arctic Science Committee IASC was born in the late 1980s and has evolved into a kind of umbrella organization for Arctic science. In the field of Arctic social sciences, there is IASSA (International Arctic Social Sciences Association). The Arctic touches on a wide range of disciplines and involves researchers from many countries: Arctic research is not limited to research institutes in the Arctic countries.

Arctic universities and research institutes are organized into the University of the Arctic (UArctic), a network that organizes student exchanges and thematic research networks, among others. Over 200 member institutes include universities in the Arctic region and outside it.

In the European North, six northernmost universities from Finland, Norway and Sweden have organized themselves in Arctic Six network. European Polar Board is a forum for European research institutes active in the Arctic or Antarctica.

There are many different kinds of Arctic-related conferences around the world. Some are general, some focus on a specific theme. Regular events include:

Antarctic issues are discussed through a joint Antarctic Treaty. On the contrary, there is no international legally binding Arctic Treaty. The Arctic Council is established by a declaration, not a treaty, i.e. it represents a so-called soft-law instrument which is not strictly binding to the states involved.

 

The essential differences between the polar regions in terms of cooperation are:

  • Antarctica does not belong to any state. All the land in the Arctic is part of a state. Only Svalbard has a treaty regulating it (the Svalbard Treaty) applies to the Svalbard.
  • No one lives permanently in Antarctica. The Arctic region has about four million inhabitants.
  • Antarctica is a continent surrounded by the sea. In the north, there is an ocean in the polar region, surrounded by continents and islands. In the North, there are rules and agreements on shipping and maritime governance.
  • By convention, the Antarctic is for peaceful and scientific use only. The Arctic has a strong military and economic presence.
Last updated: 2.12.2025